Perfectionism and negative repetitive thoughts: Examining a multiple mediator model in relation to mindfulness

Highlights

• Tested worry and rumination as mediators between perfectionism and distress.

• Mediator model examined in relation to five facets of mindfulness.

• Awareness and non-judgment uniquely explained negative thoughts and distress.

• Worry mediated perfectionism–distress link for those low and high in mindfulness.

• Rumination mediated perfectionism–distress link only for those low in mindfulness.

Abstract

Perfectionism is known to be associated with various maladaptive outcomes, yet little research has examined mechanisms underlying perfectionism or potential protective factors. This study investigated worry and rumination as mediators between perfectionism and psychological distress in university students (N = 213), and related the multiple mediator model to a five-facet conceptualization of mindfulness. Socially prescribed perfectionism was related to higher levels of distress, including negative affect, depression, anxiety, and stress, while self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism appeared unrelated to distress. Mindfulness facets of acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experience, and to a lesser extent non-reactivity to inner experience, were the strongest independent contributors to perfectionism, negative repetitive thoughts, and distress. Worry and rumination mediated the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and negative affect; however, the mediating effect of rumination was absent in those high in mindfulness. These findings suggest that a mindfulness disposition may mitigate distress related to socially prescribed perfectionism by removing the mediating effect of ruminative thought. Future research might explore a mindfulness-training program to target negative repetitive thoughts underlying socially prescribed perfectionism.

Introduction

In recent years, perfectionism has received increasing empirical attention as a stable personality construct, and has become an important individual-differences variable in the investigation of psychological distress (Egan, Wade, & Shafran, 2011). Perfectionism is the tendency to continuously strive towards improvement and high standards, and is commonly studied as a multidimensional phenomenon consisting of self-oriented (SOP), other-oriented (OOP), and socially prescribed (SPP) perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). SOP involves self-directed perfectionistic behaviors and refers to the tendency to set and seek high standards of performance for oneself. OOP involves the tendency of individuals to expect high performance standards in others. SPP involves the perceptions and beliefs that an individual must attain to the high standards and expectations prescribed by others. Although this increased attention has led to a better understanding of perfectionism, further research may extend this understanding by (1) elucidating the mechanisms underlying the perfectionism–distress link and (2) exploring possible protective factors.

Research indicates that SPP predicts increases in depression over time (O’Connor, Rasmussen, & Hawton, 2010), and is implicated in various anxiety disorders, including social phobia, specific phobia, and generalized anxiety (Egan et al., 2011). These relationships appear in both clinical and non-clinical populations (Flett et al., 1996, Wheeler et al., 2011).

An active debate exists regarding the extent to which SOP is adaptive or maladaptive, particularly in non-clinical samples. Some studies suggest a positive relationship between SOP and depression (e.g., Flett, Panico, & Hewitt, 2011), other studies find no relationship between these constructs (e.g., Besser, Flett, & Hewitt, 2010), and yet others suggest that SOP is associated with positive affect and goal achievement (e.g., Molnar, Reker, Culp, Sadava, & DeCourville, 2006).

Examinations of the relationship between OOP and psychological distress have also revealed some inconsistent results. It has been suggested that individuals high in OOP may be protected against some forms of psychopathology because they blame others for negative life events (Shafran & Mansell, 2001). However, Chang, Sanna, Chang, and Bodem (2008) found that self-oriented perfectionism was related to increased anxiety in students. Furthermore, research indicates that OOP is positively associated with histrionic, narcissistic, and antisocial personality characteristics (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Therefore, these individuals may experience levels of distress not related to the narrow dimensions of depression or anxiety, but related to the broad dimension of negative affect (e.g., hostility, irritability). In summary, it is evident from the literature that elevations in SPP are related to greater levels of distress; however, there are mixed findings pertaining to the association of SOP and OOP with distress, specifically in non-clinical samples.

Rumination and worry are maladaptive repetitive thought styles that are associated with perfectionism and various forms of psychological distress (O’Connor, O’Connor, & Marshall, 2007). Chronic worry is defined as a chain of thoughts that are relatively uncontrollable, negative affect-laden, and related to events with uncertain outcomes (Borkovec, Robinson, Pruzinsky, & DePree, 1983). Rumination, specifically the brooding subtype, is related to negative affect and involves self-focused attention on past events (Treynor, Gonzalez, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2003). Although worry and rumination are highly intercorrelated, these cognitive processes have been conceptually and empirically differentiated as separate constructs (Goring & Papageorgiou, 2008).

Research examining variables underlying the perfectionism–distress link has been limited (Bardone-Cone et al., 2007). Prior research suggests that rumination mediates the relation between maladaptive perfectionism and depression (Di Schiena, Luminet, Philippot, & Douilliez, 2012). A study that separately tests the mediational effects of both worry and rumination might be useful to disentangle the underlying relationships that are operating between perfectionism and broad dimensions of distress (i.e., negative affect). Mediational models that have been examined previously rely heavily on semi-partial correlations and hierarchical linear regressions, which consider one mediator at a time. The current study used a bootstrapped approach that allows multiple mediators to be examined within the model (Preacher & Hayes, 2008).

Mindfulness is a method that involves “bringing one’s complete attention to the present experience on a moment-to-moment basis” (Marlatt & Kristellar, 1999, p. 68). Mindfulness has been conceptualized as both a dispositional characteristic and as a skill that can be learned and practiced. Both conceptualizations are associated with decreased distress in clinical and non-clinical populations (Evans et al., 2011, Evans et al., 2008). Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, and Toney (2006) conceptualize mindfulness to be multi-faceted, consisting of five skills: (1) observing internal and external stimuli, such as sensations, cognitions, and emotions, (2) describing and labeling internal and external stimuli with words, (3) acting with awareness, rather than acting mechanically with attention focused elsewhere, (4) non-judging of inner experience, such as thoughts and feelings, and (5) non-reactivity to inner experiences by letting thoughts come and go.

Theory and research suggests that dispositional mindfulness may serve as a protective factor against the negative repetitive thoughts associated with perfectionism. Perfectionism is postulated to be maladaptive when individuals have low levels of self-acceptance (i.e., demanding perfection), but adaptive when individuals have high levels of self-acceptance (i.e., striving for perfection; Lundh, 2004). Some research supports this perfectionism/acceptance theory, where the experience of high standards is not in itself maladaptive, rather judging oneself and not accepting failure is what contributes to distress (Campbell and Di Paula, 2002, Lundh et al., 2008).

Furthermore, we believe that training in mindfulness has possible implications for treatment as it may specifically target the mediating effects of worry and rumination, disrupting the chain underlying perfectionism and distress. Mindfulness skills endorse acceptance of negative repetitive thoughts, rather than altering the content of cognitions, as seen in traditional models of cognitive-behavioral therapy (Hofmann, Sawyer, & Fang, 2010). Investigating perfectionism and negative repetitive thoughts in association to the facets of mindfulness can potentially identify which specific skills may be the most relevant in a treatment context.

The purpose of the current study was to disentangle worry and rumination as underlying mechanisms operating between perfectionism and psychological distress, and explore the possible role of mindfulness in mitigating the maladaptive effects of perfectionism. First, the extent to which the dimensions of perfectionism are related to negative repetitive thoughts (i.e., worry and rumination) and distress (i.e., positive affect, negative affect, depression, anxiety, and stress) was examined. Second, the five facets of mindfulness were investigated in relation to these variables. Lastly, worry and rumination were examined as mediators between perfectionism and negative affect, in individuals with low levels of dispositional mindfulness and in individuals with high levels of dispositional mindfulness. We hypothesized that worry and rumination would mediate the relationship between perfectionism and negative affect for those low in mindfulness, but not for those high in mindfulness.